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[1] In 2023, for example, only one-quarter of the US$3.5 trillion in ASEAN goods trade was intra-regional, and intra-ASEAN exports only constituted around 15 percent of the US$1 trillion in services trade. ASEANStats, ASEAN Statistical Highlights 2024, https://data.aseanstats.org/
[2] Boston Consulting Group Study on the ASEAN Digital Economy Framework Agreement, endorsed by ASEAN Economic Ministers in August 2023, https://asean.org/asean-defa-study-projects-digital-economy-leap-to-us2tn-by-2030/
[3] Kati Suominen, ‘How would the DEFA add value to Asia-Pacific trade?’, Hinrich Foundation, September 2024
[4] https://theaseanmagazine.asean.org/article/the-asean-digital-economy-framework-agreement/; https://asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/Framework-for-Negotiating-DEFA_ENDORSED_23rd-AECC-for-uploading.pdf
[5] https://asean.org/asean-digital-ministers-advocate-for-development-of-secure-innovative-and-inclusive-digital-ecosystem/
[6] OECD Digital Services Trade Restrictiveness Index, https://goingdigital.oecd.org/en/indicator/73. For examples of business impacts, see Kati Suominen, ‘How would the DEFA add value to Asia-Pacific trade?’, Hinrich Foundation, September 2024
[7] Simon Evenett and Johannes Fritz, Emergent Digital Fragmentation: The Perils of Unilateralism, Global Trade Alert: 2022.
[8] https://www.ecommercenext.org/indonesia-to-impose-hefty-import-duties-to-protect-local-businesses-from-cheap-e-commerce-goods/
[9] Indonesia, ‘Indonesia’s Perspective on Customs Duties on Electronic Transmissions’, WT/GC/W/859, December 2022
[10] Badri Narayanan Gopalakrishnan et. al, ‘The Value of Cross-Border Digital Transmissions to MSMEs in Indonesia: Implications for Participation in the WTO E-Commerce Moratorium’, Institute for International Trade, May 2024; WTO, OECD et. al., Digital Trade for Development, December 2023
[11] APEC (2023). ‘Economic Impact of Adopting Digital Trade Rules: Evidence from APEC Member Economies’
[12] https://asean.org/asean-launches-worlds-first-regionwide-digital-economy-framework-agreement
[13] https://www.mti.gov.sg/ASEAN/Association-of-Southeast-Asian-Nations---ASEAN
[14] https://www.reuters.com/technology/artificial-intelligence/trump-revokes-biden-executive-order-addressing-ai-risks-2025-01-21
[15] Elms, D. (2024). ‘Designing ASEAN’s digital trade framework’, Hinrich Foundation, June 2024, https://www.hinrichfoundation.com/research/article/ftas/designing-asean-digital-trade-framework/. On AI, https://asean.org/asean-digital-ministers-advocate-for-development-of-secure-innovative-and-inclusive-digital-ecosystem
[16] https://www.hinrichfoundation.com/research/article/ftas/cptpp-rewrite-rules-of-21st-century-trade
[17] https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/indonesia-formally-requests-join-trans-pacific-trade-pact-2024-09-25
[18] For an excellent discussion on this, see Dr Deborah Elms, ‘Designing ASEAN’s digital trade framework’, June 2024